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Teaching and Learning Resource (TLR)
1. Title
Bibliographic Citation for Authoritative Academic Writing
2. Keywords
Study skills, bibliographic citation, writing with authority, critical thinking.
3. Introduction
Many undergraduate induction programmes, along with published guides to study skills and research projects, include bibliographic citation on their list of essential academic skills (see, for example, Bell, 1993; Northedge, 1990; Northedge et al, 1997; Parker, 1994; Sharp and Howard, 1996* ). Techniques for 'in text' and 'end of text' citation, based on Harvard or some other recognised academic referencing system, are typically described, and reasons why bibliographic citation is important in academic writing are routinely given, notably:
This last point is rarely addressed in detail, or stated in the terms used here. Most guides to bibliographic citation implicitly accord equal authority to all published texts, which thereby become potential citation 'substitutes' one for another. Rejection of this last proposition provides a point of departure for the present exercise.
4. Aim
This exercise provides a structured opportunity for students to explore questions of authority associated with the sources that they may consider citing in connection with their academic writing (essays etc), and the associated question of how to make that writing as authoritative as possible. It permits examination of some intellectually more challenging questions than are characteristically addressed in the teaching of bibliographic citation skills, such as 'when is it necessary and when is it unnecessary to provide a citation?'; and 'how do we decide which 'classes' of material (e.g. text books, journal articles, newspapers) might appropriately be used as a reference source in given situations?'.
5. Learning outcomes
Students who have engaged successfully with this exercise will have enhanced:
6. Pre-requisites
It is assumed that students are familiar with elementary aspects of bibliographic citation, including the reasons commonly given for citing sources in the context of academic writing. Some prior exposure to ideas of authority and credibility, associated with academic knowledge claims, is not essential, but would enable students to engage with this exercise in a more sophisticated way (see Links with other TLRs, below).
7. How to use TLR
The exercise is designed to operate interactively, and will probably lose
efficacy with SSRs in excess of around 15:1. Where students have limited
relevant experience on which to draw, team teaching could assist in
stimulating debate. Conversely, more experienced students could initially
work in small groups (perhaps of four or five), with limited supervision;
a concluding 'plenary' session might then be arranged to allow each
grouping to lead the discussion of one major point. Depending on the
students' level of experience, between 60 and 90 minutes could be
profitably devoted to the class-based exercise (i.e. excluding the private
study element). The list of 13 'classes' of source material given in
Instructions to students (below) could be
reduced, where appropriate, by amalgamation and/or exclusion.
The activity is designed to be open-ended, in the sense that it may well provoke questions (e.g. about the 'independence' of scientific knowledge produced under various conditions) which cannot be answered satisfactorily in the time - or with the knowledge - available. It should, accordingly, encourage participants to reflect further on the issues raised, and to apply the resultant learning to their future academic reading and writing. Some of these questions could usefully be explored further via the medium of other TLRs (see Links with other TLRs, below).
8. Instructions to students
1. Which of the following statements should be supported by a citation, when used or referred to in a piece of academic writing?
(i) Knowledge of an undisputed nature, which is very widely held.
[Example: The European Union currently has fifteen member states.]
(ii) Knowledge of an undisputed nature, which is quite widely held at
the level of detail or precision offered.
[Example: The EU's agricultural labour force is in long-term decline.]
(iii) Knowledge of an undisputed nature, which is not widely held at the
level of detail or precision offered.
[Example: Agriculture currently occupies around 43 per cent of the EU's
total land area.]
(iv) Quite widely acknowledged, but nonetheless debatable, points.
[Example: The EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has had an
overwhelmingly destructive impact on Europe's environment.]
(v) Little-known and contentious points.
[Example: Persuasive evidence is now emerging that organo-phosphate
agricultural pesticides pose a potentially serious human health risk.]
(vi) Claims of a conjectural nature, for which there is no widespread
support.
[Example: Public concern about the safety of food produced using
synthetic chemicals could ultimately undermine the EU's 'affordable food'
objective.]
(vii) Propositions which bear directly on differences of expert opinion.
[Example: Academic environmental scientists and those employed by NGOs
tend to give more credence to the supposed human health risks associated
with organo-phosphate pesticides than do scientists working for government
departments or 'industry' research organisations.]
2. Which of the following 'classes' of published or unpublished material might be appropriately used for reference purposes in each of the above cases (for which a citation is considered necessary)? Note: In some cases you might consider that a citation could legitimately be drawn from more than one 'class' of material, depending perhaps on availability; in other cases you may feel that two or more sources should be cited, conceivably drawn from different 'classes' of material.
(i) Academic text book (e.g. on environmental science) based almost entirely on secondary sources, and whose coverage extends far beyond the scope of the subject being considered.
(ii) Academic book or refereed journal article (e.g. on Europe's changing economy and environment in the twentieth century) based mainly on secondary sources, and whose coverage extends somewhat beyond the scope of the subject being considered.
(iii) Academic book or refereed journal article (e.g. on the Common Agricultural Policy and its environmental effects) based mainly on the author's own research, and whose coverage corresponds closely to the subject being considered.
(iv) Report of 'in-house' research, or secondary 'literature review' paper, produced by government researchers.
(v) Report of 'in-house' research, or secondary 'literature review' paper, produced by industry-based researchers.
(vi) Report of 'in-house' research, or secondary 'literature review' paper, produced by environmental NGO researchers.
(vii) Report of 'in-house' research, or secondary 'literature review' paper, produced by academic researchers working under contract for a government department, or industrial organisation, or environmental NGO.
(viii) Article in a 'quality' newspaper or weekly current affairs magazine (e.g. The New Scientist) by a journalist noted for his/her specialist knowledge of the subject being considered.
(ix) Television or radio documentary by a journalist noted for his/her specialist knowledge of the subject being considered.
(x) Words spoken by a soap opera character.
(xi) Notes taken from a university lecture.
(xii) Statistical/reference source published by a reputable author or organisation.
(xiii) 'Encyclopaedic' source provided in a printed or electronic medium, where no author is given.
9. Stimulus Material
The class-based activity is self-contained, and no additional materials are required. For the follow-up (private study) exercise, students will need an example of their own academic writing.
10. Degree stage
Degree stage per se is less important than some relevant pre-requisite
experience (see above). But given that the activity is designed to
facilitate acquisition of important academic study skills, it would be
most appropriately introduced as early as possible in a student's
undergraduate career (timed perhaps to coincide with the production of an
early essay or other piece of academic writing).
11. Resource requirements
There are no special resource requirements, other than access to the
instructions provided above. The accommodation used should be appropriate
for interactive learning.
12. Preparation
No specific preparation required.
13. Links with other TLRs
Classifying Knowledge Claims and Evaluating the Credibility of Knowledge Claims would provide useful preparation and/or reinforcement for this TLR. Producing Credible Knowledge Claims would facilitate further development and application of the learning which this TLR, along with those mentioned above, seeks to promote.
More generally, the aims and/or learning outcomes of this TLR are related to those of other TLRs listed in the following 'thematic cluster':
14. Follow-up activities
In addition to the use of related TLRs (see above, Links with other TLRs) students might attempt the following activity:
Re-examine a current or recent piece of your own academic writing (e.g. an essay, or the literature review associated with a research project), perhaps in discussion with a partner. Annotate it carefully throughout, using the numbering system adopted in the above 'Class-Based Discussion Questions', to indicate each of the following:
15. Recommended reading
Given that most published guides to study skills and research projects give scant regard to the issues raised in this TLR, the following sources are few in number and are recommended with some qualifications:
Fairburn, G and Winch, C (1996) Reading, Writing and Reasoning: A Guide for Students. SRHE and Open University Press. More enlightened than most sources on the 'problematic' nature of knowledge and knowledge claims, whilst offering limited insights. See pages 63-69, 75-82 and 126-9 in particular.
Gash, S (1989) Effective Literature Searching for Students. Gower. Of relevance here only for its comments (pages 7-18) on several classes of potential source materials (viz books, journal articles, reports and official publications). However the knowledge claims associated with these various sources are viewed as 'problematic' to a very limited extent only.
Thomson, A, ed (1996) Critical Reasoning: A Practical Introduction. Routledge. Pages 39-40 deal briefly with questions concerning the reliability of 'experts' and other authorities - whilst assuming, in common with most works in the critical thinking genre, that:
16. Users' comments
“I found that students’ awareness of issues surrounding bibliographic citation was raised by the learning process. Issues addressed ... included ... types of knowledge claims needing support by citation and types of material suitable for supporting different types of knowledge claims. In addition supplementary issues were also raised such as the authority of particular types of publications (this included a discussion of peer review processes and what is peer reviewed and what isn’t.”
"The exercises within the TLR were well designed. A particularly beneficial aspect ... was the use of example statements ... Some of the statements were also nicely ambiguous, which led to considerable discussion amongst the group and some disagreement.”
“The TLR constitutes a nicely self-contained exercise.”
“I feel that the TLR did raise awareness of the methods and philosophy used in referencing and citation. This was evidenced indirectly by the improved coursework handed in shortly after the exercise.”
"I found the TLR useful in provoking me to think about how to teach the need for appropriate and proper citation.”
“I would like the source types simplified, but can do this for myself.”
“The follow through work was linked into an assessed exercise ... in which students evaluate [mark] a past project ... This year citation and referencing was targeted by every group as a weakness in project reports. The TALESSI ... [TLR] ... had clearly registered with them.”
“Take the time to substitute example statements directly relevant to some recent learning experience of your students ... [and] ... which are accessible irrespective of students’ home background.”
“I have no doubt that the TLR will engage appropriately prepared and motivated students in a rewarding discussion. In general, these Second Level [Applied Biology and Biochemistry] students do not appreciate the importance of bibliographic citations let alone ideas of ‘authority’ ... However ... the students did move some way towards an appreciation of the stated learning outcomes. Some of them demonstrated this in their subsequent coursework essays.”
“A revision of the basic aspects of citation and reference listing was required before embarking on the question of ‘authority’.”
“Students should do the exercise immediately prior to the setting of an assignment that will require citation skills.”
“I used the TLR in a ‘learning how to learn’ unit; I wonder if I could have used it better in a unit in which I chose material related to a common course interest?”