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Teaching and Learning Resource (TLR)
1. Title
Nature, Science and the Enlightenment
2. Keywords
Culture, the Enlightenment, the European Scientific Revolution, nature, science.
3. Introduction
In Keywords (London: Fontana; 1976, pp. 184-9), Raymond Williams outlines three different ways in which we refer to ‘nature’. First, we use the word ‘nature’ to suggest the essential quality or character of something. Second, the word ‘nature’ can mean the underlying force directing the world. And third, it can mean the material world itself, often separate from human society. Exploring the history of ideas about nature is fundamental to conceptualising the relationship between humans and the environment. The different ways in which people make use of the material world express important aspects of their relationship to it. For instance, the Europeans who first settled in New England learned a great deal about local ecology from the native Americans they encountered. But under pressure to develop a more capitalist system of agriculture and food production the immigrants soon realised that their relationship to the land was incompatible with those of the Indian tribes, who were forcibly removed if they did not co-operate. Philosophers like Locke provided the economic rationale for this dispossession and European history took its course. Another example might be the dilemma made more acute by the current awareness of global environmental degradation and the rapid advances in genetic engineering: is ‘man’ part of nature, or has ‘he’ placed himself outside (or even above) it?
4. Aim
The aim of this TLR is to explore the historical development of ideas about ‘nature’ in Western society, with reference to the influence of the Enlightenment and the European Scientific Revolution. It also seeks to examine the implications of such ideas for the ways in which humans interact with the non-human world. Although the TLR has a European / Western focus, it does not assume that all students will be from European backgrounds. Indeed, any discussion that reveals the extent of cross-cultural views of ‘nature’ would be highly advantageous.
5. Learning outcomes
After using this TLR, students should:
6. Pre-requisites
Students should be able to engage meaningfully with analyses emanating from the social sciences, and be able to identify and summarise the key points of a text. Some familiarity with the history of the Enlightenment or European Scientific Revolution would also be an advantage.
7. How to use TLR
The TLR has been designed to be used broadly as follows.
Stage 1
(i) Introduce the TLR, reviewing the nature of the content, the aims and learning outcomes, and the way in which the TLR will be used.
(ii) Divide the class into groups of five or six students, and allocate one reading (see Section 9 - Stimulus Material) to each student such that the students in each group each have a different reading.
(iii) Instruct each student to read her/his reading and prepare a brief synopsis (not more than one side of A4) - copies of which should be given to the other group members at the start of the next session.
Parts (i) and (ii) of Stage 1 could be completed in about 30 minutes’ of class time. Part (iii) could be begun in whatever class time remained, but would need to be completed during private study time.
Stage 2
(i) Working in groups - each student should give the other members of her/his group a copy of the synopsis s/he has prepared, and read the synopses prepared by her/his colleagues.
(ii) Working in groups - instruct the students to discuss the key points to have emerged from their various readings. In particular, they should focus on the ways in which ideas about 'nature' changed during the course of the Enlightenment and the European Scientific Revolution.
(iii) Conclude the session with an all-class discussion of the key points to have emerged from the group discussions. Amongst other things, students should realise that ideas about 'nature' change over time; and, in particular, that a significant shift in ideas about nature occurred during the course of the European Scientific Revolution. They might also be invited to consider how ideas about nature vary from place to place (especially between different cultures). From this, they should see that ideas about nature tend to reflect the historical and cultural contexts within which they are produced; that is, they are socially constructed. Moreover, they should appreciate that this applies not just to the ideas associated with mainstream Western culture, but also to those advanced by, for example, environmentalists (of whatever hue) - and, of course, to their own ideas! Thus, the concept of nature is an inherently problematic one; and one that is always - at least potentially - subject to contestation.
It is likely that about 90 minutes’ of class time would be required to complete Stage 2. It is possible that - with careful time management - it could be completed in one hour. Alternatively, the activity could easily be extended to run over a period of two hours - either as a single session or as two separate, one-hour sessions.
8. Instructions to students
As directed by tutor.
This TLR is based around the following readings:
A. Gold, M (1984) A History of Nature. (pp. 12-33) In Massey, D & Allen, J (eds) Geography Matters! Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
B. Hamilton, P (1992) Chapter 1: The Enlightenment and the Birth of Social Science’. Section 2, What was the Enlightenment? (pp. 22-34) In Hall, S and Gieben, B (eds) Formations of Modernity. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
C. Hamilton, P (1992) Chapter 1: The Enlightenment and the Birth of Social Science’. Section 3, Enlightenment as the Pursuit of Modernity. (pp. 36-45) In Hall, S and Gieben, B (eds) Formations of Modernity. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
D. Merchant, C (1992) Radical Ecology: The Search for a Livable World. London: Routledge. Chapter 2, Science and Worldviews. (pp. 41-60)
E. Pepper, D (1996) Modern Environmentalism. An Introduction. London: Routledge. Chapter 3.2, The Scientific Revolution and Nature as a Machine. (pp. 135-48)
F. Williams, R (1976) Keywords. London: Fontana. Entries under Nature (pp. 184-9) and Science (pp. 232-5).
NOTE: Where students work in groups of five (rather than 6), Reading D would probably be best one to omit as it covers similar ground to that of Reading E.
10. Degree stage
This TLR has been designed for use at degree stages two and three, although it is possible that the learning outcomes could be achieved by students towards the end of stage one (ie in semester two or the third term of the first year).
11. Resource requirements
There are no particular resource requirements for this TLR.
12. Preparation
The only preparation required for this TLR is to ensure that students have access to the readings specified in Section 9 - Stimulus Material.
This TLR has been designed as part of a set of five TLRs to be used (ideally) in the following order:
However, it does not need to be followed by TLRs (2) - (7) in order for the learning outcomes (see Section 5) to be achieved.
14. Follow-up activities
Students should be encouraged to read all of the readings used with this TLR. See also Section 13 - Links with other TLRs.
15. Recommended reading
For students who wish to deepen their knowledge of the Enlightenment, the following text is recommended as providing a relatively short and highly accessible introduction: