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Teaching and Learning Resource (TLR)
1. Title
Guidelines for Analysing Environmental Values in Texts
2. Keywords
Environmental values, organisational interests, knowledge communities, discourses.
3. Introduction
Students are frequently required to analyse and, indeed, evaluate ‘texts’ (see Appendix B – Glossary of Key Terms) – for a variety of reasons and from a variety of perspectives. In the environmental field, this means that they will very often need to be able to identify and think critically about the values and, especially, the environmental values embodied within texts; and about the social context within which such value-laden texts are produced. The ability to do this is an important one for several reasons. For example, value commitments may be ‘hidden’; that is implicit rather than explicit. Their legitimacy may be assumed rather than argued for. And they may have highly significant implications – for society and the non-human world – in ways that may or may not be clearly acknowledged within the text.
4. Aim
The aim of this TLR is to provide a set of guidelines (see Appendix A) that can be used by students whenever they are required to analyse the environmental value content of texts (see Section 9 – Stimulus Material). More specifically, the guidelines provide a basis for analysing: the values (environmental and social) embodied within a text; the relationships between those values and any organisational interests, knowledge communities, discourses and/or rationalities (see Appendix B – Glossary of Key Terms) with which the production of a text might be associated; and the social implications of a text’s production.
The guidelines could be used in the context of a wide range of educational programmes, including: those of an applied nature, where students are required to analyse the activity of different individuals and/or groups in relation to environmental decision making or the formulation of public opinion; and those of a more theoretical nature concerned with environmental philosophy, ethics or values.
The guidelines have been written so that they can be used with or without modification (where modification could involve deleting or changing existing elements of the guidelines, or adding new elements) – according to the dictates of a particular learning and teaching situation.
5. Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes will vary according to the way in which the TLR is used, but are likely to include some or all of the following:
After using this TLR, students should have developed their abilities to analyse texts in terms of:
6. Pre-requisites
The pre-requisites for this TLR will vary according to the context within which it is used. At the very least, students should probably have an elementary knowledge of the fields of environmental ethics and/or values. Where they do not have this knowledge, one or both of the following TLRs might be used before this one:
In addition, it would be helpful if students were familiar with the idea that the production of knowledge can be viewed as a process of making ‘knowledge claims’, and had had at least some experience of thinking critically about such processes. Where this is lacking, the following TLRs might be used prior to this one:
7. How to use TLR
It is anticipated that tutors might use the guidelines (see Appendix) in whatever way seemed most appropriate in any particular educational context. This could involve giving the guidelines to students in their present form or modifying them prior to use. (Modification might involve deleting or changing existing elements of the guidelines, or adding new elements.)
In all cases, students should be fully briefed with regard to the nature of the learning activity, the expected learning outcomes, any associated assessment, and so on.
In certain circumstances (depending on the way in which the TLR is to be used and the prior knowledge and abilities of the students), it might be necessary to precede this exercise with a mini-lecture – for example on or more of the following topics:
In order to get the most out of the exercise, it is recommended that:
i) students should work individually, in pairs or in small groups whilst undertaking detailed analysis of texts;
ii) students should be given an opportunity to reflect upon and – ideally – to discuss (in groups or all together) what they have learnt during the course of this exercise.
8. Instructions to students
As directed by tutor.
9. Stimulus Material
It is intended that the guidelines would be appropriate for use with a wide variety of texts, including specialist academic literature, documents produced by governmental, non-governmental and business organisations, and material (fiction as well as non-fiction) published by the mass media. Texts may be print-based, internet-based, broadcast or recorded; and might be selected by the tutor or the students themselves – according to the dictates of the particular teaching and learning situation.(1)
10. Degree stage
It is anticipated that this TLR would be most appropriate for use with students at level 3. However, it could be used at an earlier stage than this provided that the exercise was presented to students in a way that was appropriate to their existing knowledge and abilities.
11. Resource requirements
The TLR has no special resource requirements.
12. Preparation
None.
13. Links with other TLRs
In terms of subject matter, this TLR is related to the following TLRs – which, between them, provide an introduction to the fields of environmental values/ethics:
In terms of approach, this TLR is related to the following TLRs – which provide an introduction to thinking critically about the process of making knowledge claims:
More generally, this TLR can be used as a precursor to any TLR which includes a component of ‘values analysis’ as part of the learning activity. Examples of such TLRs include:
14. Follow-up activities
See Links with other TLRs above.
15. Recommended reading
For an accessible introduction to the field of environmental ethics, see:
For an anthology of works that provide a broad cross-section of approaches within environmental ethics, see:
For a sociologically-informed introduction to the relationship between knowledge, values and environmental decision-making, see:
Read the questions below before reading or viewing the text you are required to analyse. Then read/view the text and answer the questions. Note that it might not always be possible to give a definitive answer to a particular question – because, for example, the text does not contain statements relevant to that question, or because the text is unclear or even inconsistent. In such cases, make a note of why the question cannot be answered definitively.
Values Embodied in the Text
1. Does the text indicate that individual living organisms have value? If so, is it all organisms or only those that belong to classes whose members satisfy certain criteria? Do all valued organisms have equal value, or do some have more value than others? What is the justification – explicit or implicit – for these views?
2. Does the text indicate that species have value (over and above any value that individual organisms might have)? If so, is it all species or only those that satisfy certain criteria? Do all valued species have equal value, or do some have more value than others? What is the justification – explicit or implicit – for these views?
3. Does the text indicate that ecosystems have value (over and above any value associated with the organisms or communities of organisms that inhabit those ecosystems)? If so, is it all ecosystems or only those that satisfy certain criteria? Do all valued ecosystems have equal value, or do some have more value than others? What is the justification – explicit or implicit – for these views?
4. Does the text indicate that non-living things (eg air, landscapes, minerals, water) have value? If so, is it all non-living things or only those that satisfy certain criteria? Do all valued non-living things have equal value, or do some have more value than others? What is the justification – explicit or implicit – for these views?
5. Does the text indicate that the value of these things (individual organisms, species, ecosystems, non-living things etc) is instrumental (ie value that derives entirely from its usefulness to humans)(2) or intrinsic (ie value in and of itself, independent of any usefulness it might have for humans)?(3) What is the justification – explicit or implicit – for this view?
Summarise your answers to questions 1-5 by making notes in the appropriate spaces of Table 1: Environmental Values.
6. How does the text indicate that environmental values (refer back to your answers to questions 1-5) relate to wider cultural, economic, political and social values (concerning, for example, consumerism, economic growth/development, the nature and role of ‘the market’, individual liberty/responsibility, lifestyles, private/public decision making, the nature and role of the state)? Note that environmental values may be implicit in apparently ‘non-environmental’ values. For example, a commitment to a major road building programme suggests a low priority accorded to nature conservation and, probably, a predominantly instrumental approach to environmental value.
7. To what extent are the values (environmental and non-environmental) ‘contained’ in the text explicitly stated – as opposed to being implicit?
8. To what extent are each of the following deployed in the presentation and/or justification of the values contained in the text: assertion; argument; appeals to so-called authority figures (eg academic, political, religious), ‘public opinion’ or ‘common sense’; attacks on opposing points of view or those who espouse them; literary devices (eg metaphor, emotionally-charged language); audio-visual devices (eg emotionally-charged images)?
Organisations and Interests
9. Identify any organisations that appear to have been associated – in any way – with the publication of the text. This could include organisations that employed the text’s author(s), organisations that commissioned the text, organisations that supported the text’s publication (financially or otherwise), and organisations that have endorsed the text.
10. Find out about, and make a note of, the nature, purpose and interests of any organisations you identified in your answer to question 9; and of how authoritative and powerful each they are in the spheres within which they operate.
Summarise your answers to questions 9-10 by making notes in the appropriate spaces of Table 2: Organisations and Interests.
11. To what extent do the values contained in the text reflect the interests of the organisations associated with its publication?
Knowledge Communities, Discourses and Rationalities(4)
12. Identify any knowledge communities with which the textual values and/or organisational interests identified previously appear to be associated.
13. Find out about, and make a note of, the characteristic ideas or beliefs associated with any knowledge communities identified above.
14. Identify any discourses with which the textual values and/or organisational interests identified previously appear to be associated.
15. Find out about, and make a note of, the characteristic ideas or beliefs associated with any discourses identified above.
16. Identify any rationalities with which the textual values and/or organisational interests identified previously appear to be associated.
17. Find out about, and make a note of, the characteristic ideas or beliefs associated with any rationalities identified above.
Summarise your answers to questions 12-17 by making notes in the appropriate spaces of Table 3: Knowledge Communities, Discourses and Rationalities.
Social Implications
18. Who is the text’s intended or likely audience? Possible audiences include the general public, members of specific organisations, and individuals or organisations involved in specific events or processes (eg development of agreements or treaties; policy formulation within governmental, non-governmental or business organisations). Note that the text could have more than one intended audience.
19. What is the text’s intended or likely purpose? Possible purposes include to inform, educate, and persuade audiences; to influence events and processes; and to stimulate or contribute to debates. Note that the text might have more than one intended purpose.
20. To what extent is the text (a) likely to appear credible to its intended audiences, (b) likely to achieve its intended purposes, and (c) likely to have other, possibly unintended or unanticipated consequences?
Discourse: A way of talking about, thinking about or representing a particular subject or topic, along with associated social practices. (Knowledge and practice in discourses are mutually reinforcing.) Discourses may be specifically environmental (eg relating more or less directly to particular movements within environmental politics and philosophy such as Deep Ecology or Ecological Modernisation); and/or of a more general political nature (eg relating more or less directly to particular ideologies such as Anarchism, Capitalism or Socialism); and/or of a religious nature (eg relating more or less directly to particular religious traditions such as Christianity or Buddhism – or branches within those religions); and so on. Discourses are said to structure the ways in which we can understand the world and act in the world, and to be part of the way in which power circulates and is contested. As such, they are said to be productive or enabling: particular discourses enable us to think and act in particular ways. However, they are also said to be constraining, insofar as we cannot readily think or act outside of, or beyond, the particular discourses that shape us.
Knowledge community: A group whose members characteristically share a set of beliefs (often tacitly-held and taken-for-granted) concerning, for example: the nature of ‘reality’ and ways in which knowledge can be produced and validated; the validity of certain theoretical and ‘factual’ knowledge; the choice of legitimate objects for scholarly and professional attention; and the education and training required for full membership of such a community. Examples of such communities include particular professions (eg environmental health) and academic disciplines / sub-disciplines (eg eco-toxicology), and more general groupings such as the industrial-scientific community or the green-scientific community.
Rationality: A more or less distinctive way of comprehending, or reasoning about, the world, upon or within which discourses may be constructed. Rationalities concern, in particular, alternative conceptions of the possible forms which knowledge about the world can take – but whose underlying premises are routinely concealed from - or, at least, taken for granted by – those who draw upon them in constructing their discourses. Examples of rationalities include: ‘technical rationality’, which asserts – explicitly or implicitly – the superiority of ‘instrumental’ knowledge (especially knowledge which facilitates the control of physical, biological or other processes), and which proclaims – explicitly or implicitly – the objectivity of such knowledge; and ‘cultural rationality’, which asserts that knowledge necessarily contains a subjective component: that human values, motives, interests and intentions are reflected in all knowledge claims. As with discourses (see above), rationalities can be said to be both enabling and constraining in the effects they have on the ways in which we can understand, and act in, the world.
Text: Anything, written or otherwise, capable of being ‘read’ for meanings. Includes: specialist academic literature; documents produced by governmental, non-governmental and business organisations; and material (fiction as well as non-fiction) published by the mass media. May be print-based, internet-based, broadcast or recorded.
Notes:
(1) Although the guidelines can in principle be used with a wide variety of texts, it should be noted that texts may vary greatly in their ‘environmental significance’ and, consequently, in the richness of the learning experience they are likely to provide in the context of this TLR. Texts which most obviously lend themselves to the kind of analysis suggested here include documents that advocate particular policies or decisions in the environmental field (produced, for example, by governmental, business and non-governmental organisations). However, it should be noted that most documents can be subjected to this kind of analysis, including those that purport to be objective and/or value-free (eg reports of scientific research).
(2) ‘Usefulness’ may be defined in terms of satisfaction of so-called basic ‘needs’ (relating more or less directly to human survival) and/or in relation to social activity (which may be, for example, aesthetic, cultural, economic, educational, intellectual, political, recreational, religious, scientific, spiritual).
(3) Things have been claimed to have intrinsic value because, for example, they have a ‘telos’ (an endpoint towards which they naturally develop), have interests of their own, are alive, are sentient (conscious, capable of sensation or responsive to stimuli), are self-conscious, exhibit certain kinds of social organisation, or use tools.
(4) See Appendix B – Glossary of Key Terms for an explanation of how these terms are being used.